Clearly, managers cannot perform their tasks well unless they have an understanding of, and are responsive to, the many elements of the external environment — economic, technological, social, political, and ethical factors — that affect their areas of operation.
Thus, managers must establish an environment in which people can accomplish group goals with the least amount of time, money, materials, and personal dissatisfaction or in which they can achieve as much as possible of a desired goal with available resources. In a non-business enterprise such as units of a business such as an accounting department that are not responsible for total business profits, managers still have goals and should strive to accomplish them with the minimum of resources or to accomplish as much as possible with available resources.
A manager who achieves such an aim is said to be a strategic manager. The second goal or aim of all managers is that they must be productive. Indeed, government, and the private sector recognize the urgent need for productivity improvement. Productivity improvement is about effectively performing the basic managerial and non-managerial activities.
Simply defined, productivity is about the output-input ratio within a time period with due consideration for equality. Lastly, productivity implies effectiveness and efficiency in individual and organizational performance.
Effectiveness is the achievement of objectives. Efficiency is the achievement of the ends with the least amount of resources. Managers cannot know whether they are productive unless they first know their goals and those of the organization. The :Essentiality of Management in Any Organization Managers are charged with the responsibility of taking actions that will make it possible for individuals to make their best contributions to group objectives. However, a given situation may differ considerably among various levels in an organization or various types of enterprises.
The scope of authority held may vary and the types of problems dealt with may be considerably different. All managers obtain results by establishing an environment for effective group endeavor. In addition, all managers carry out managerial functions. However, the time spent for each function may differ. Thus, top-level managers spend more time on planning and organizing than do lower-level managers. Leading, on the other hand, takes a great deal of time for first-line supervisors.
The difference in the amount of time spent on controlling varies only slightly for managers at various levels. The manager is, therefore, the dynamic, life-giving element in every business. Without the leadership of the manager, resources of production remain mere resources and never become production. In a competitive economy, the quality and performance of the managers determine the success of a business; indeed, they determine its survival.
Thus, the emergence of management as an essential, a distinct and a leading institution is a pivotal event in social history. Management is likely to remain a basic and dominant institution as long as human civilization itself survives.
In fact, because management is indispensable, this explains why it grew so fast and with so little opposition. Hence, the developed and developing worlds have an immense stake in the competence, skill and responsibility of management. Managerial Skills and the Organizational Hierarchy Mangers require four main kinds of skills, namely: technical, human, conceptual and design. What do each of these skills mean? Technical skill is knowledge of and proficiency in activities involving methods, processes, and procedures.
Thus, it involves working with tools and specific techniques. Human skill is the ability to work with people; it is cooperative effort; it is teamwork; it is the creation of an environment in which people feel secure and free to express their opinions. It is also about recognizing significant elements in a situation, and to understand the relationships among the elements. Design skill is the ability to solve problems in ways that will benefit the enterprise.
To be effective, particularly at upper organizational levels, managers must be able to do more than see a problem. In addition, they must have the skill of a good design engineer in working out a practical solution to a problem. Managers must also have that valuable skill of being able to design a workable solution to the problem in the light of the realities they face. It has, however, got to be mentioned that the relative importance of these skills may differ at various levels in the organization hierarchy.
At the top management level, conceptual and design abilities and human skills are especially valuable, but there is relatively little need for technical abilities. The assumption, especially in large companies, that chief executives can utilize the technical abilities of their subordinates. In smaller firms, however, technical experience may still be quite important. Women in the Organizational Hierarchy In recent times, women have made significant progress in obtaining responsible positions in organizations.
Among the reasons for this development are laws governing fair employment practices, changing societal attitudes toward women in the workplace, and the desire of companies to project a favorable image by placing qualified women in managerial positions. However, in some organizations, women have difficulties in making it to the top.
Besides historical reasons, discrimination has been one of the main reasons why women do not make it to the top. Why Study Management Theory? Theories are perspectives with which people make sense of their world experiences Stoner et. Theory is a systematic grouping of interdependent concepts mental images of anything formed by generalization from particulars and principles are generalizations or hypotheses that are tested for accuracy and appear to be true to reflect or explain reality that give a framework to, or tie together, a significant area of knowledge.
However, the variety of approaches to management analysis, the welter of research, and the number of differing views have resulted in much confusion as to what management is, what management theory and science is, and how managerial events should be analyzed.
Since that time, the vegetation in this jungle has changed somewhat, new approaches have developed, and older approaches have taken some new meanings with some new words attached to them, but the developments of management science and theory still have the characteristics of a jungle. There is a body of opinion that says that management theory evolved during and after Second World War; it has only been studied in-depth since then.
The industrial revolution that brought in mass production, specialization, seeing people as critical resource, all intensified management as a critical area of discourse. Principles in management are fundamental truths, explaining relationships between two or more sets of variables, usually an independent variable and a dependent variable.
Principles may be descriptive or predictive, and not prescriptive. That is, they describe how one variable relates to another — what will happen when these variables interact.
Once managers know about theory, they will have the capacity to forestall future problems that may occur in the enterprise. At this point it is worth distinguishing management theory from management techniques. Contrary to the theory we have discussed above, techniques are essentially ways of doing things; methods of accomplishing a given result. In all fields of practice, including management, they are important.
Techniques normally reflect theory and are a means of helping managers undertake activities most effectively. Grewal Book Free Download April Bansal Book Free October Verma Book Free Download February Dutta Free Downlaod August 5.
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Is this statement true or false? Process Manipulated variable or Controller variable measured variable Variables ERROR Error is the difference between the measured variable and the setpoint and can be either positive or negative. The objective of any control scheme is to minimize or eliminate error. Therefore, it is imperative that error be well understood. Any error can be seen as having three major components.
These three components are shown in the figure on the folowing page Magnitude The magnitude of the error is simply the deviation between the values of the setpoint and the process variable. The magnitude of error at any point in time compared to the previous error provides the basis for determining the change in error. The change in error is also an important value. Rate Of Change The rate of change is shown by the slope of the error plot.
In the temperature control loop example, if the control system held the process fluid at In the temperature control loop example, adding cold process fluid to the vessel would be a load disturbance because it would lower the temperature of the process fluid.
Using the temperature control loop example, V in the equation below is the fuel valve position, and e is the error. Automatic control systems are The fuel valve position V is a function f of the sign positive or control operations that involve negative of the error Figure 7. Summing block Process Error Manipulated variable variable Valve f e position Feedback Algorithm Example Control algorithms can be used to calculate the requirements of much more complex control loops than the one described here.
For example, a human operator might have watched a level gauge and closed a valve when the level reached the setpoint. Control operations that involve human action to make an adjustment are called manual control systems.
Conversely, control operations in which no human intervention is required, such as an automatic valve actuator that responds to a level controller, are called automatic control systems. Under what circumstances does compared to a setpoint, and action is taken to correct any deviation an open control loop exist? An open control loop exists where the process variable Select all options that apply. For example, a water 2 Process variable is not compared valve may be opened to add cooling water to a process to prevent the 3 Process variable is measured process fluid from getting too hot, based on a pre-set time interval, and compared to a setpoint regardless of the actual temperature of the process fluid.
In addition, this section describes how process control equipment is represented in technical drawings of control loops. In practice, there are instruments and strategies to accomplish each of these essential 1. Identify three examples of a primary tasks.
Other technologies have been developed so that communication can occur among the components that measure, 1 Resistance Temperature Detectors compare, and adjust. Some of the greatest ingenuity in the process control field is apparent in sensing devices.
Because sensing devices are the first element in the control loop to measure the process variable, they are also called primary elements.
Primary elements will not make direct contact with the process fluid. For example, when a conductive fluid passes through the magnetic field in a magnetic flow tube, the fluid generates a voltage that is directly proportional to the velocity of the process fluid. With an RTD, as the temperature of a process fluid surrounding the RTD rises or falls, the electrical resistance of the RTD increases or decreases a proportional amount.
The resistance is measured, and from this measurement, temperature is determined. For example, inside a capacitance pressure device, a that translates a mechanical signal transducer converts changes in pressure into a proportional change in into an electrical signal. A converter is a device that converts one type of signal into another type of signal. For example, a converter may convert current into voltage or an analog signal into a digital signal.
In process control, a converter used to convert a 4—20 mA current signal into a 3—15 psig pneumatic signal commonly used by valve actuators is called a current-to-pressure converter. A transmitter is a device that converts to a monitor or controller. Identify the signal types that are transmit the process variable measurement from the instrument to a used in the process control centralized control system.
Select all options that apply. Pneumatic signal 2. Analog signal 3. Digital signal 1 Hydraulic signals 2 Digital signals Pneumatic Signals 3 Analog signals 4 Pneumatic signals Pneumatic signals are signals produced by changing the air pressure in a signal pipe in proportion to the measured change in a process 5 Electro-magnetic signals variable.
The common industry standard pneumatic signal range is 3—15 psig. Pneumatic signalling is still common. However, since the advent of electronic instruments in the s, the lower costs involved in running electrical signal wire through a plant as opposed to running pressurized air tubes has made pneumatic signal technology less attractive.
Analog Signals The most common standard electrical signal is the 4—20 mA current signal. With this signal, a transmitter sends a small current through a set of wires. The current signal is a kind of gauge in which 4 mA represents the lowest possible measurement, or zero, and 20 mA represents the highest possible measurement. This signal can be converted to a temperature reading or an input to a control device, such as a burner fuel valve. Other common standard electrical signals include the 1—5 V volts signal and the pulse output.
Digital signals are discrete levels or values that are 6. The methodology displays information about the used to combine the digital signals is referred to as protocol. Manufacturers may use either an open or a proprietary digital protocol. Open protocols are those that anyone who is developing a control device can use. Proprietary protocols are owned by specific companies and may be used only with their permission. See Module 8: Communication Technologies for more information on digital communication protocols.
Which of the following are examples measurement point. An indictor makes this reading possible. An of a digital signal? Indicators may be as simple as a pressure or temperature gauge or more complex, such as a digital read-out device.
Some 1 Profibus indicators simply display the measured variable, while others have 2 4 - 20 mA control buttons that enable operators to change settings in the field.
A recorder is a device that records devices. In addition, manufacturers often use recorders to gather data for trend analyses. By recording the readings of critical measurement points and comparing those readings over time with the results of the process, the process can be improved.
Different recorders display the data they collect differently. Some recorders list a set of readings and the times the readings were taken; others create a chart or graph of the readings. Recorders that create charts or graphs are called chart recorders. Local controllers are usually one of the three types: pneumatic, electronic or programmable.
Contollers also commonly reside in a digital control system. Controllers always have 9. Which of the following have the an ability to receive input, to perform a mathematical function with ability to receive input, to perform the input, and to produce an output signal. Common examples of a mathematical function with the controllers include: input, and produce an output signal? The computers are programmed to respond to inputs by sending 1 Actuators outputs to maintain all processes at setpoint.
Which of the following is the most Setpoint common final control element in process control industries? In most cases, the final control element is a valve used to restrict or cut off fluid flow, but pump motors, louvers typically used to regulate air flow , solenoids, and other devices can also be final control elements. Final control elements are typically used to increase or decrease fluid flow. For example, a final control element may regulate the flow of fuel to a burner to control temperature, the flow of a catalyst into a reactor to control a chemical reaction, or the flow of air into a boiler to control boiler combustion.
In any control loop, the speed with which a final control element reacts to correct a variable that is out of setpoint is very important. Many of the technological improvements in final control elements are related to improving their response time.
The most common example of an actuator is a valve actuator, which opens or closes a valve in response to control signals from a controller. Actuators are often powered pneumatically, hydraulically, or electrically. Diaphragms, bellows, springs, gears, hydraulic pilot valves, pistons, or electric motors are often parts of an actuator system. The ISA Activities has developed a set of symbols for use in engineering drawings and You should be familiar with ISA symbology so that you can demonstrate possible process control loop solutions on paper to your customer.
Figure 7. Which of the following is a symbol of such as transmitters, sensors, and detectors Figure 7. A double line indicates that the 3 function is in an auxiliary location e. The absence of a line indicates that the function is field mounted, and a dotted line indicates that the function or instrument is inaccessible e. Many modern transmitters are equipped with microprocessors that perform control calculations and send control output signals to final control elements. Which of the following is a symbol of a controller located behind a panel?
Activities PLC Types The symbol displayed below denotes a PLC in a primary location. An actuator is always drawn above the valve Figure 7. Pneumatic valve Manual valve Electric valve Which of the following is a symbol of a pneumatic valve? Valves 1 Pumps 2 Directional arrows showing the flow direction represent a pump Figure 7.
The symbols displayed below represent a data link and a process connection. The initial letter on an ISA symbol transmitter indicate: indicates the measured variable.
The initial letter indicates the measured variable. Hope this post is helpful to you. Have a great day! Kindly share this post with your friends to make this exclusive release more useful. Notify me of follow-up comments by email. Notify me of new posts by email. Welcome to EasyEngineering, One of the trusted educational blog.
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